Supplementary material from "Pulsed artificial light at night alters moth flight behaviour"

Vehicle headlights create pulsed artificial light at night (pALAN) that is unpredictable, intense and extends into previously dark areas. Nocturnal insects often have remarkable low-light vision, but their slow pupillary light responses may leave them vulnerable to pALAN, which has important ecological consequences. To test this, we exposed nocturnal moths – important pollinators and prey – to four pALAN treatments. These comprised ‘cool’ and ‘warm’ lights, either emitted from phosphor-coated light-emitting diodes (LEDs) or RGB (Red-Green-Blue) LEDs, matched in colour (CCT) and intensity to human vision. We assessed the initial behavioural response, likely crucial to the survival of an organism, of 428 wild-caught moths comprising 64 species. We found that exposure to a cool phosphor-coated LED light pulse increased instances of erratic flight and flight-to-light that are likely detrimental as they increase the risks of impact with a vehicle, predation or excess energy expenditure. Our findings suggest that pALAN can cause a wide range of behavioural responses in nocturnal moths, but that the most harmful effects could be minimised by reversing the current shift towards high CCT (cool) phosphor-coated LED car headlights. Lower CCT or RGB alternatives are likely to provide benefits for road safety while reducing ecological harm.