Supplementary material from "Integrating Culture into Primate Conservation "

Primates exhibit the richest cultural repertoire among animal taxa, spanning foraging, communication, sociality, and tool use. Understanding the cultural behaviours of primates has strongly influenced the study of animal behaviour and challenged traditional views that culture is exclusive to humans. With nearly 60% of primate species endangered due to human-driven habitat changes, recent calls have emerged to integrate cultural diversity into conservation strategies. However, the integration of culture into primate conservation requires careful planning to avoid misallocation of resources or skewed conservation priorities. Our review reveals that studies on primate culture are limited to less than 3% of extant species, largely due to taxonomic and methodological biases favouring long-term observations in protected habitats. We propose that including culture in conservation policies can broaden the scope of research, fostering more inclusive conservation agendas that address taxa with diverse habitats and underexplored cultural traits. Furthermore, anthropogenic habitat changes can both erode and foster cultural behaviours, emphasizing the need for context-specific conservation strategies. We suggest that recognizing cultural traits in conservation frameworks may enhance the resilience of primate populations in changing environments. This approach promises a more comprehensive and equitable allocation of conservation efforts, preserving both the biological and cultural diversity of primates.